Domestic Violence and Stalking Among Older Adults Discussion Paper

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Domestic Violence and Stalking Among Older Adults Discussion Paper

Domestic violence can also be called domestic abuse or family violence and involves a behavioral pattern that is associated with violence as well as abuse in a family or a home setting. It usually takes place in both heterosexual as well as same sex relationships and can also involve the children as well. The children may also be the cause of the violence when they commit unfavorable actions to their parents as well as the other siblings. Domestic violence also involves sexual, psychological as well as physical abuse commonly executed by an individual against an intimate partner. It can be associated with a variety of criminal behaviors which include battery assault, stalking, homicide, harassment as well as other incidences attributed to domestic violence like robbery, malicious damage to property, arson as well as endangering the lives of minors. Domestic involves a willful intimidation, battery, physical, psychological and sexual assault or any other form of abusive behavior that forms a systematic power struggle pattern as well as control that is commonly perpetuated by one partner in an intimate relationship. The level of severity as well as frequency of domestic violence may vary significantly but the basic component involves consistent efforts of one of the partners in the maintenance of control as well as power over another.

The occurrence of domestic violence is generally characterized by a purposeful hurting of one person by another with physical or emotional implications. Since the persons involved in domestic violence are closely related, usually executed by a husband, an ex-husband, a boyfriend, or an ex-boyfriend the term intimate partner violence has also been used to mean the same thing. However, it is also common for women to play the role of an abuser in some cases of domestic violence. The most common forms of domestic violence include, physical, emotional as well as sexual abuse. Domestic Violence and Stalking Among Older Adults Discussion Paper

Domestic violence is a serious epidemic that is common in majority of the communities irrespective of the status of the concerned parties with regard to their age, religion, race, nationality, sexual orientation, economic status as well as level of education. The vice is rarely reported due to some barriers because the offenders are the source of financial and emotional support to their victims (Lichtenstein & Johnson, 2009). The most notable feature that accompanies domestic violence is a controlling behavior marked with physical and emotional abuse which forms a small fraction of the universal prototype of control as well as dominance. The results of domestic violence can range from physical injury to psychological trauma, and in extreme cases, death may result. The effects of domestic violence may involve psychological, physical as well as emotional consequences across generations as well as entire lifetime of an individual.

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Domestic violence and wife beating have been illegalized in all states since 1920. But the seriousness of the criminal justice system was not noted until 1970 when cases of domestic violence escalated in to serious crime with a significant shift from private matters within the family. Routine training for the police, the prosecutors as well as judges has been an ongoing process on issues of domestic violence with corresponding implementation of aggressive interventions. The most suitable interventions have however never been decided as debate on the issue is ongoing. The use of the criminal justice system has resulted to presumption of the accused people as guilty most of them being men. The notion of advocates is that the victims’ needs are usually sacrificed during convictions. The criminal justice system must therefore address the challenges associated with the protection of the rights of the victims and the accused at the same time not forgetting that domestic violence as a prevalent social problem must be treated with the highest degree of seriousness that it deserves. The criminal justice system has much left unaccomplished in its efforts of intervention in domestic abuse issues.

In most cases, heterosexual men are the convicts of domestic violence although an average of five to fifteen percent of convicts for baterering has been documented as being women. However, the women are caught in a self defense situation and are arrested by mistake. Although females have rarely been linked with abusing their male partners, studies indicates that in most cases, they are actually the initial aggressors.

Literature

Walker, L. E.A. (2006). Battered woman syndrome. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1087, 142-157. doi: 10.1196/annals.1385.023

Walker (2006) documents the results of research that led to the identification of the battered women syndrome in 1978 which was considered as a subcategory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, PTSD. According to the researcher, the existence of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the women who are commonly battered is undisputable. The researcher also proved empirically the close connection between Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and battered women syndrome.

Lichtenstein, B., & Johnson, I. M. (2009). Older African American Women and Barriers to Reporting Domestic Violence to Law Enforcement in the Rural Deep South. Women and Criminal Justice, 19 (4), 286-305.

The article reports a research investigating barriers that older African Americans face in reporting cases of domestic violence. Women are forced remain in abusive relationships by traditional gender issues. The victims are generally stigmatized and this hinders reporting of cases of violence. The women are dependent on their abusive partners because they receive financial as well as emotional support so they fear being abandoned and acts of retaliation being taken against them in case they report. The trust that the victims have on law enforcement officers is yet another barrier to reporting cases of domestic violence.

Lee, H.Y., Lightfoot, E., Park, E. (2010). When does a battered woman seek help from the police? The role of battered woman’s functionality. Journal of Family Violence, 25, 195-204. doi: 10.1007/s10896-009-9283-y

Lee, Lightfoot & Park (2010) documents the results of a research finding aimed at establishing the common factors such as the functionality of participation in the social functions among the women who had experienced battering and the involvement of police officers. The participants in this research were recruits from various agencies that cater for domestic violence victims in the United States. According to the findings in this research, a greater proportion of victims involve the police at one time during domestic violence. Additionally, if the functionality of a woman was impacted by domestic violence, the chances of engaging a police increased. The Battered Woman Syndrome was never mentioned in this research since the effects of functionality were given a priority leaving out the physical as well as the mental effects that are associated with abuse.

Bonomi, A. E., Anderson, M. L., Reid, R. J., Carrell, D., Fishman, P. A., Rivara, F. P., et al. (2007). Intimate partner violence in older women. Gerontologist, 47 , 34-41.

The author documents issues of prevalence, level of severity, frequency as well as duration of domestic violence among women of ages above 65 years. According to the findings of the study, 26.5 percent of the females are exposed to domestic violence in the lifetime. 18.4 percent faced cases of sexual and physical violence while 21.9 percent were exposed to non physical forms of violence. 3.5 percent were exposed to violence for a period of five years.

Asling-Monemi, K., Peña, R., Ellsberg, M. C., & Persson, L. A., (2003). Violence against women increases the risk of infant and child mortality: A case-referent study in Nicaragua. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 81(1), 10-18.

The author of this article documents the effects of domestic violence on the mortality risks associated with mothers rearing children in the age bracket of 0 to 5 years. Important factors that promote domestic violence were noted as the level of education of the mother, their age as well as parity. There was a close association between sexual as well as physical violence and pregnancy with significant risks of mortality of the infant below the age of five years.

Brooks, S. L. (2008). The use of the creative therapies with survivors of domestic violence. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher LTD.

Brooks documents the effectiveness of the use of supervision, art, drama, music, play, dance and movement can also be used successfully in intervention and treatment of victims and offenders in domestic violence. Brooks is interested in highlighting the treatment approaches related to creative art in domestic violence intervention.

Jasinski, J. L., & Dietz, T. L. (2003). Domestic violence and stalking among older adults: Assessment of risk markers. Journal of Elder Abuse and Neglect, 15 (1), 3–18.

The journal accounts for domestic violence on older adults with alcohol consumption and employment status playing a key role in perpetuating physical violence. Older women were more exposed to physical assault compared to their counterpart older men. The survey was conducted by National Violence Against Women, NVAW.

Lundy, M. & Grossman, S. F. (2009). Domestic Violence Service Users: A Comparison of Older and Younger Victims. Journal of Family Violence, 24, 297-309.

The article reports a comparison in cases of domestic violence between older women of above 65 years of age and the younger women of between 18 and 64 years of age. Due to the fact that the older women do not engage in paying economic activities thus depend on public financial assistance, they were exposed to higher chances of abuse from their relatives. They were also associated with higher cases of disabilities, lack of shelter as well as special needs. They were also documented to have little acces to vital services such as group counseling.

Thio, A. (2010). Deviant behavior, 6^th Ed. Ohio: Pearson Education.

The author explains the reasons attributed to battering cycles and abuse. The social profiles of offenders, cases of wife battery as well as child abuse are also discussed

Keim, J., Olguin, D. L., & Strauser, D. R. (2009). Enhancing employment outcomes for survivors of intimate partner violence: A developmental work personality perspective. Journal of Employment Counseling, 46(3), 136-144.

The article addresses the importance of Developmental Work Personality Scale in assessing as well as counseling domestic violence survivors in successfully accessing employment outcomes. The author also highlights the high rates of domestic violence that leads to the termination of relationships while survivors engage in seeking treatment against the abusive behavior as well as the psychiatric symptoms associated with domestic violence. Survivors are actively engaged in employment programs.

Knight, C. (2006). Groups for individuals with traumatic histories: Practice considerations for social workers. Social Work, 51(1), 20-30.

Membership in groups that address issues of trauma associated with domestic violence is associated with immense benefits to survivors. The social workers also face some professional challenges in facilitation of their duties in counseling the survivors.

Sliep, Y., Wiengarten, K., & Gilbert, A. (2004). Narrative theatre as an interactive community approach to mobilizing collective action in Northern Uganda. Families,Systems, and Health, 22(3), 306-320.

Intimate partner violence has occasionally been associated with battered women syndrome, BWS, which implies to a mental disorder that is commonly associated with domestic violence victims to long term and serious abuse. The battered women syndrome can be associated with serious implications as it is a potential cause for ‘learned helplessness which is a form of psychological paralysis (Walker, 2006). This is characterized by a high level of depression among the battered women and they appear defeated as well as passive to the extent that the woman is unable to leave the relationship though abusive. The woman lives in a state of irrational fear and weakness with high anticipation that the abuse will come to an end at one time. As the cycle of Intimate partner violence continues, the BWS in the victim is strengthened.

The battered women syndrome has been acknowledged as a mental disorder in majority of the states and thus they avail support systems to the victims of battered women syndrome as a result of domestic violence. Many states have also enacted legislations to address the violent outbursts that are associated with battered women syndrome.

The battered women syndrome is a situation attributed to domestic violence that requires the assistance of law enforcement agencies through reporting of the abuser. Domestic Violence and Stalking Among Older Adults Discussion Paper The police are supposed to arrest the accuse person and proceed with prosecution. Unfortunately, upon prosecution, majority of battered women syndrome victims are likely to repudiate their statements as they feel sorry and fear of subsequent violence upon release of the offender. Recanting of testimony has been documented among many of the battered women but the authorities must be strict in enforcing the law against recanting of evidence and treat it as lying to the authorities. In most cases, recanting does not affect the progress of the case in the court of law. The battered women also fear attending the court sessions and give their evidence. The common procedure is that, the victim must testify against the accused person in the court. However, in most cases, the battered women syndrome victims fear testifying against their abusers unless they are supplied with victim’s aide during court sessions. Apart from the legal options that the victim can use, certain organization offer emotional as well as psychological support to the victims of battered women syndrome. Their role is very crucial because the process of separation is mostly confusing as well as difficult to the battered women.

Mental disease is a factor in domestic violence

Mental disorders have conventionally been associated with cases of domestic violence. Some aggressors have been linked with mental disorders such as borderline personality disorder and bipolar disorder and may be romantic in their relationship. However, with time such people turn out to be physically, sexually as well as verbally abusive to their partners. Sometimes they may decline eating food prepared by their partners arguing that, the partner has an intention of killing them. Majority of the domestic abusers suffer from psychiatric problems like for example, narcissism and they have a sturdy notion that they are emotionally, sexually or physically unconstrained to their victims. They usually overreact in response to a situation that they perceive as a threat which is a form of abuse. Domestic Violence and Mental Health Policy Initiative has proved that, mental illness have an influence of increasing the risk of woman’s exposure to abuse.

The role of psychology in preventing, intervening and/or treating criminal offenders and victims

Psychologists must be active in preventing, intervening and/or treating criminal offenders as well as victims. Their efforts of prevention and treatment must be aimed at a reduction in occurrence of domestic violence as well as promotion of nonviolent, healthy as well as respectful relationships. This can basically be achieved addressing the changes in the echelons of social ecology which influence domestic violence including the individual, the community, relationships as well as the entire society. The reduction of risk factors associated with domestic violence musty also be addressed leading to the promotion of healthy relationships.

Specific psychological services related domestic violence involves Counseling for victim and offenders. The high level of prevalence and extent of domestic violence necessitate that therapists and counselors interact with the victims of domestic violence and conduct the sessions of counseling privately with the aim of increasing the sense of safety of the victim through encouraging full disclosure of any acts of violence. I8t is also important to analyze if the act of violence was an isolated case or a continuous pattern of control. The offenders must also be engaged in counseling so that cases of domestic violence can be minimized as well as the risk of an occurrence of domestic violence in the future in the existing relationship as well as a new one. The intervention with the offender should be based on the past history, criminogenic needs as well as risk of reoccurrence of the violence. The ultimate aim is reduction of risk to the victim. Most of the programs targeting offenders are carried out within 24 to 36 weeks in groups of approximately twelve participants.

Psychologists have made significant gains in developing suitable approaches for the treatment of violent behavior as well as interventions for the victims as well as offenders in attempts of solving the problems that are associated with domestic violence. One of the most important of such approach is the interventions involving cognitive behavioral therapy, CBT that targets the offenders in domestic violence. The approaches of interventions basically consider that violence is a learned behavior and they also argue that, it is possible to learn non violence behavior as well thus the perpetrators of domestic=c violence can benefit from this approach to intervention. The basic premise behind cognitive behavioral therapy approach is changing the pattern of behavior of offenders through identification of a process of thoughts as well as beliefs that are closely associated with the violence behavior of the offender. This involves initiation of mental pathways to the violence coupled with a justification of the violent behavior. The men who are normally physically abusive are encouraged to embrace thoughts that are likely to transform their understanding of the concept of violence. It is also prudent for this category of people to reexamine the circumstances that are associated with their acts of violence followed by a total disruption of a cognitive chain of activities that favor their engagement in acts of violence leading to domestic abuse. The demonstration of the course of events leading to the use of violence by the offender as a way to let out anger, getting compliance out of the victim as well as self empowering with a sense of control, the psychologists achieve much in encouraging transformations in the pattern of thought of abuse perpetrator concerning violence and at the same time, the perpetrators are educated on techniques of cognitive behavior. Such techniques may include social skills, communication skills, nonviolent assertiveness as well as anger management. The use of cognitive behavioral therapy preventing, intervening and treating domestic violence offenders also plays a crucial role in addressing the emotions that are associated with violent behaviors together with the attitudes of perpetrators towards the women.

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The target population in cases of cognitive behavioral therapy arising from intimate partner violence involves the male batterers, almost exclusively. However, the interventions involving cognitive behavioral therapy may be executed for other types of offenders as well as different treatment settings. The practice components applicable in cognitive behavioral therapy involve the use of psychotherapy approach focusing on identified thought patterns as well as beliefs, values and attitudes that guides thinking in an individual. This therapeutic technique is not static but involves a combination of similar therapies. The approaches may incorporate therapy in rational emotive behavior, rational living, diabetic behavior and cognitive. The beneficiaries of cognitive behavioral therapy gain specific skills which is beneficial in solving the problems that they encounter on a daily basis. The skills learnt are also applicable in the achievement of their set objectives as well as goals.

From a structural perspective, cognitive behavioral therapy has six important phases. The first of the phases is assessment and the others follow in the order indicated here: reconceptualization – skills acquisition – skills consolidation together with their application – generalization along with maintenance – follow-up treatment. The specific phases sometimes differ significantly based on the applicable program but however, all the programs that are associated with cognitive behavioral therapy are responsible for encouraging the participant in the development of their ability in the identification of their unrealistic as well as distorted patterns of thinking and also to change the identified pattern so that the problematic behavior can be avoided.

The program for cognitive behavioral therapy must be administered by properly qualified professionals involving certified as well as licensed therapists. The settings involve small groups where important lessons are incorporated with exercise that may engross demonstrations, role play as well as modeling. There are also some counseling sessions for cognitive behavioral therapy that are offered to individuals that involve assigning some homework to participants that they can complete independently between the sessions.

The cognitive behavioral therapy involves several treatments that are conducted on short time basis encompassing cognitive techniques as well as behavioral components. Cognitive techniques entail ways of thinking differently about a certain situation while behavioral components entail skill building as well as education to integrate new thoughts. Programs of therapy are generally administered once in every week for a number of weeks or months dealing with activating new skills as well as concepts in to practice. The use of supervision, art, drama, music, play, dance and movement can also be used successfully in intervention and treatment of victims and offenders in domestic violence (Brooks, 2008).

References

Bonomi, A. E., Anderson, M. L., Reid, R. J., Carrell, D., Fishman, P. A., Rivara, F. P., et al. (2007). Intimate partner violence in older women. Gerontologist, 47 , 34-41.

Brooks, S. L. (2008). The use of the creative therapies with survivors of domestic violence. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas Publisher LTD.

Jasinski, J. L., & Dietz, T. L. (2003). Domestic violence and stalking among older adults: Assessment of risk markers. Journal of Elder Abuse and Neglect, 15 (1), 3–18.

Knight, C. (2006). Groups for individuals with traumatic histories: Practice considerations for social workers. Social Work, 51(1), 20-30.

Lundy, M. & Grossman, S. F. (2009). Domestic Violence Service Users: A Comparison of Older and Younger Victims. Journal of Family Violence, 24, 297-309.

Domestic Violence and Stalking Among Older Adults Discussion Paper