Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay

Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay

Without carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen and phosphorus, life wouldn’t exist. These are the most abundant elements in living organisms. These elements are held together by covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bonds. Covalent bonds are especially strong, thus, are present in monomers, the building blocks of life.

These monomers combine to make polymers, which is a long chain of monomers strung together. Biological molecules can be distinguished by their functional groups. For example, an amino group is present in amino acids, and a carboxyl group can always be found in fatty acids.  Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.The groups can be separated into two more categories, the polar, hydrophilic, and the nonpolar, hydrophobic. A fatty acid is nonpolar, hence it doesn’t mix with water. Molecules of a certain class have similar chemical properties because they have the same functional groups.

A chemical test that is sensitive to these groups can be used to identify molecules that are in that class. This lab is broken down into four different sections, the Benedict’s test for reducing sugars, the iodine test for the presence of starch, the Sudan III test for fatty acids, and the Biuret test for amino groups present in proteins. The last part of this lab takes an unknown substance and by the four tests, determine what the substance is. BENEDICT’S TEST Introduction: Monosaccharides and disaccharides can be detected because of their free aldehyde groups, thus, testing positive for the Benedict’s test. Such sugars act as a reducing agent, and is called a reducing sugar.

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Materials: onion juice5 test tubes1 beaker potato juice rulerhot plate deionized waterpermanent marker5 tongs glucose solutionlabels starch solution6 barrel pipettes Benedict’s reagent5 toothpicks Procedure: 1.Marked 5 test tubes at 1 cm and 3 cm from the bottom. Label test tubes #1-#5.By mixing the sugar solution with the Benedict’s solution and adding heat, an oxidation- reduction reaction will occur. The sugar will oxidize, gaining an oxygen, and the Benedict’s reagent will reduce, loosing an oxygen. If the resulting solution is red orange, it tests positive, a change to green indicates a smaller amount of reducing sugar, and if it remains blue, it tests negative. Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

2.Used 5 different barrel pipettes, added onion juice up to the 1 cm mark of the first test tube, potato juice to the 1 cm mark of the second, deionized water up to the 1 cm mark of the third, glucose solution to the 1 cm mark of the fourth, and the starch solution to the 1 cm mark of the fifth test tube. 3.Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.Used the last barrel pipette, added Benedict’s Reagent to the 3 cm mark of all 5 test tubes and mix with a toothpick. 4.

Heated all 5 tubes for 3 minutes in a boiling water bath, using a beaker, water, and a hot plate.

5.Removed the tubes using tongs. Recorded colors on the following table. 6.

Cleaned out the 5 test tubes with deionized water. Data: Benedict’s Test Results Discussion: From the results, the Benedict’s test was successful. Onion juice contains glucose, and of course, glucose would test positive. Starch doesn’t have a free aldehyde group, and neither does potato juice, which contains starch. Water doesn’t have glucose monomers in it, and was tested to make sure the end result would be negative, a blue color. IODINE TEST Introduction:The iodine test is used to distinguish starch from monosaccharides, disaccharides, and other polysaccharides.

Because of it’s unique coiled geometric configuration, it reacts with iodine to produce a blue- black color and tests positive. A yellowish brown color indicates that the test is negative. Materials: 6 barrel pipettespotato juicestarch solution 5 test tubeswateriodine solution onion juice glucose solution5 toothpicks

Procedure: 1.Used 5 barrel pipettes, filled test tube #1 with onion juice, second with potato juice, third with water, fourth with glucose solution, and fifth with starch solution. 2. Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

Added 3 drops of iodine solution with a barrel pipette, to each test tube. Mixed with 5 different toothpicks. 3.Observed reactions and recorded in the table below. Cleaned out the 5 test tubes.

Data: Iodine Test Results Discussion:The iodine test was successful. Potato juice and starch were the only two substances containing starch. Again, glucose and onion juice contains glucose, while water doesn’t contain starch or glucose and was just tested to make sure the test was done properly. SUDAN III TEST Introduction: Sudan III test detects the hydrocarbon groups that are remaining in the molecule. Due to the fact that the hydrocarbon groups are nonpolar, and stick tightly together with their polar surroundings, it is called a hydrophobic interaction and this is the basis for the Sudan III test. If the end result is a visible orange, it tests positive.

Material: scissorsdeionized watermargarine

Sudan III solution petri dishstarchethyl alcohol forceps lead pencilcream5 barrel pipettes filter paper cooking oilblow dryer Procedure: 1.Cut a piece of filter paper so it would fit into a petri dish. 2. Used a lead pencil, and marked W for water, S for starch, K for cream, C for cooking oil and M for margarine.

Draw a small circle next to each letter for the solution to be placed. 3.Dissolve starch, cream, cooking oil and margarine in ethyl alcohol. 4.Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay. Used a barrel pipette for each solution, added a small drop from each solution to the appropriate circled spot on the filter paper.

5.Allowed the filter paper to dry completely using a blow dryer. 6.Soaked the paper in the Sudan III solution for 3 minutes. 7.

Used forceps to remove the paper from the stain. 8.Marinated the paper in a water bath in the petri dish, changed water frequently. 9.

Examined the intensity of orange stains of the 5 spots. Record in the table below.Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

10. Completely dried the filter paper, and washed the petri dish. Data: Sudan III Test Results Filter paper: Discussion: The results indicate that the Sudan III test was sucessful.

Water and starch definitely doesn’t contain any fatty substances. Cream and cooking oil no doubtedly does contain lipids. It was surprising to find that margarine doesn’t contain any fat. BIURET TEST Introduction: In a peptide bond of a protein, the bond amino group is sufficiently reactive to change the Biuret reagent from blue to purple. This test is based on the interaction between the copper ions in the Biuret reagent and the amino groups in the peptide bonds. Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

Materials: 6 test tubesegg white solutionstarch solution6 toothpicks rulerchicken soup solutiongelatin6 parafilm sheets permanent markerdeionized watersodium hydroxide labels glucose solutioncopper sulfate Procedures: 1.Used 6 test tubes, and labeled them at 3cm and 5cm from the bottom. Labeled each #1 to #6.

2.Added egg white solution to the 3cm mark of the first tube, chicken soup solution to the 3-cm mark of the second tube, water to the 3 cm mark of the third test tube, glucose solution to the fourth, starch to the fifth, and gelatin to the sixth, all at the 3 cm mark. 3.

Added sodium hydroxide to the 5 cm mark of each tube and mix with 6 different toothpicks. 4.Added 5 drops of Biuret test reagent, 1% copper sulfate, to each tube and mix by placing a parafilm sheet over the test tube opening, and shake vigorously. 5.

Held the test tubes against a white piece of paper, and recorded the colors and results. Discarded the chemicals, and washed the test tubes.

Data: Biuret Test Results Discussion: The Biuret test seemed to have been successful. Glucose and starch are both carbohydrates, while water has no proteins. Egg white definitely has proteins, and so does gelatin. Chicken soup had a hint of protein content.

Unknown Chemical # 143 Introduction: By performing the Benedict’s Test, the Iodine Test, the Sudan III Test, and the Biuret Test, chemical #143 should be identified. Materials: materials from the Benedict’s Testmaterials from the Sudan III Test Materials from the Iodine Testmaterials from the Biuret Test Procedures: 1.Performed the Benedict’s Test, and recorded results. 2. Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

Performed the Iodine Test, and recorded results. 3.Performed the Sudan III Test, and recorded results. 4.Performed the Biuret Test, and recorded results. Data: Properties of Chemical #143 chemical #143 was a white powderish substance.

Conclusion: After ruling out the obvious wrong substances from the list like ground coffee, egg white and yolk, table sugar and salt, syrup and honey, the small amount of proteins was taken into factor. Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay. That also eliminated powdered skim milk, and soy flour. The low, or none fat content ruled out some more choices like enriched flour. The only choices left was corn starch, glucose, and potato starch. Because of the low reducing sugar, glucose can be ruled out also. The starch content of substance #143 was very high.

The protein content was around the 10% range, so potato starch would be a better guess then corn starch. But corn starch contained only a trace of fat when potato starch contained 0.8%. But 0.8% is very insignificant. The most educated guess to what chemical #143 is potato starch.

Introduction: Without carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen and phosphorus, life wouldn’t exist. These are the most abundant elements in living organisms. These elements are held together by covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bonds. Covalent bonds are especially strong, thus, are present in monomers, the building blocks of life. These monomers combine to make polymers, which is a long chain of monomers strung together. Biological molecules can be distinguished by their functional groups. For example, an amino group is present in amino acids, and a carboxyl group can always be found in fatty acids. The groups can be separated into two more categories, the polar, hydrophilic,
Label test tubes #1-#5. 2.     Used 5 different barrel pipettes, added onion juice up to the 1 cm mark of the first      test tube, potato juice to the 1 cm mark of the second, deionized water up to the 1      cm mark of the third, glucose solution to the 1 cm mark of the fourth, and the      starch solution to the 1 cm mark of the fifth test tube. 3.     Used the last barrel pipette, added Benedict’s Reagent to the 3 cm mark of all 5      test tubes and mix with a toothpick. 4.     Heated all 5 tubes for 3 minutes in a boiling water bath, using a beaker, water, and      a hot plate. 5.     Removed the tubes using tongs. Recorded colors on the following table. 6.     Cleaned out the 5 test tubes with deionized water. Data:      Benedict’s Test Results Discussion: From the results, the Benedict’s test was successful. Onion juice contains glucose, and of course, glucose would test positive. Starch doesn’t have a free aldehyde group, and neither does potato juice, Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

Biomolecules are complex organic molecules. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus are the atoms that make up most of the biomolecules. These molecules form the basic structure of a living cell. The compounds such as amino acids, nucleotides and monosaccharide’s serve as the building blocks of complex biomolecules. The important biomolecules are proteins, carbohydrates, fats, hormones and nucleic acids (Kimball, 2012).

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are substances which containing the elements carbon hydrogen and oxygen and they have the general formula of Cx (H2O) y. Simple carbohydrates or the entire carbohydrate family may also be called saccharides .They are the most abundant biomolecules belonging to class of organic compounds found in living organisms. The major source of metabolic energy for both animals and plants are carbohydrates (Churms, 1982). Carbohydrates link to with proteins forming glycoproteins and with lipids forming glycolipids. Moreover they are present in DNA and RNA, which are essentially polymers. More than 75% of the dry weight of the plant world is carbohydrate in nature mainly cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin (Reed, 2005).

Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behavior on hydrolysis. They have been broadly divided into following three groups: Monosaccharide’s, Disaccharides, Oligosaccharides, and Polysaccharides.

Monosaccharide

A carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give simpler unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone is called a monosaccharide. Monosaccharides are single sugars units and there general formula is (CH20) n. Moreover they are colorless, crystalline solids that are freely soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents. The backbone of monosaccharide is an unbranched carbon chain in which all the carbon atoms are linked by single bonds (Györgydeák and Pelyvás, 1998). One of the carbon atoms is double-bonded to an oxygen atom to form a carbonyl group each of the other carbon atoms has a hydroxyl group. If the carbonyl group is at an end of the carbon chain, the monosaccharide is an aldehyde and is called an aldose, furthermore if the carbonyl group is at any other position the monosaccharide is a ketone and is called ketoses. Glucose, fructose, galactose, and ribose are some examples of monosaccharide. The building blocks of disaccharides like sucrose and polysaccharides such as cellulose and starch and hemicelluloses are monosaccharide (Ferrier, 1999).

hexoses.png

Figure 1.1.1 ring structure of monosaccharide molecules.

triose.jpg

Figure 1.1.2 monosaccharide molecule showing the aldehyde and ketone group

http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/biology/bio4fv/page/monosacchrides.html

Disaccharides

A Disaccharide is two monosaccharide units linked by an oxide linkage formed by the loss of a water molecule. Such a linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called glycoside linkage. Three most abundant disaccharides are sucrose, lactose, and maltose. In Maltose α (1→4) glycosidic linkage joins two glucose units, this occurs mainly as a breakdown product during digestion of starch by enzymes called amylases (Owusu-Apenten, 2005). Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay. Sucrose is the most abundant disaccharide in nature and it’s mostly found in plants which acts a good transport sugar since it is very soluble and can move in very high concentration. In Sucrose the anomeric carbon atoms of a glucose unit and fructose unit are joined. Moreover lactose the disaccharide of milk consists of galactose joined to glucose by β (1→4) glycosidic linkage (Denniston, Topping and Caret, 2004). In additionally Sucrose and lactose are heterosaccharides and maltose is homosaccharides as well as maltose and lactose are reducing sugars. Sucrose is the only common non reducing sugar.

05_disaccharides.gif

Figure 1.3.1 disaccharides are formed by condensation of two monosaccharide.

https://www.google.lk/search?q=disaccharides&es_sm=122&source

Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of many monosaccharide joined together by glycosidic bond. They are large, often branched, macromolecules. Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay. Their large sizes make them more or less insoluble in water and have no sweet taste (Aspinall, 1982). When all the monosaccharide in a polysaccharide is of the same type, the polysaccharide is called a homopolysaccharide and when more than one type of monosaccharide is present, they are called heteropolysaccharides. Polysaccharides have a general formula Cn (H2O) n-1 where n can be any number between 200 and 2500. Starch glycogen and cellulose are the examples of polysaccharides (Tombs and Harding, 1998).

05_polysaccharides.gif

Figure 1.4.1 ring structure of polysaccharides molecules.

https://www.google.lk/search?q=polysaccahrides&es_sm=122&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa

Proteins

Cells are made of protein. Proteins are the most versatile class of molecules in living organisms. All proteins contain C, H, N, O some S, P, Fe, Zn, Cu. Proteins contains 20 different amino acids which are encoded by the genetic code and which constitute the building blocks of the proteins in all living organisms (Walsh, 2002). Each protein species contains one or several polypeptide chains of defined amino acid sequence. Their functions are catalysis, transport, hormones and structure. Amino acids are molecules containing an amine group carboxylic acid group and a side chain. Simple proteins contain only polypeptide chains Proteins can be soluble (globular proteins) and insoluble (myosin, fibrinogen) (Whitford, 2005). Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

figure-09-03.JPG

Figure 1.5.1 classification of proteins and there structures.

https://www.google.lk/search?q=protein structure&revid=120848340&tbm

OBJECTIVES

To distinguish between monosaccharide’s and disaccharides.

To differentiate between different types of amino acids.

To identify an unknown sample of carbohydrate and amino acid.

MATERIALS

  • Albumin solution
  • Arginine solution
  • Barfoed reagent
  • Beakers
  • Benedict’s solution
  • Bunsen burner
  • Burner stand
  • Concentrated sulphuric acid
  • Concentrated nitric acid
  • Copper sulphate
  • Fructose solution
  • Glucose solution
  • Glysin solution
  • Iodine solution
  • Lactose solution
  • Molisch’s reagent
  • Ninhydrin solution
  • Pipettes
  • Seliwanoff’s reagent
  • Sodium hydroxide
  • Starch
  • Sucrose solution
  • Test tubes
  • Tyrosine solution
  • Unknown solutions
  • Water bath

TEST FOR CARBOHYDRATES METHODOLOGY

Molisch’s Test

Five test tubes were taken with 1ml of carbohydrate solutions. Few drops of Molisch’s reagent were added to the testubes following with concen.sulphuric acid down the slide of the test tube. The colour change was observed. Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

Iodine test

Three drops of Iodine solution was added to each test tube with 1ml of each of the carbohydrate solutions. The colour change was observed.

Benedict’s test

1ml of each carbohydrate solutions was taken in five test tubes.5ml of Benedict’s reagent was added to all three test tubes. All five test tubes were placed in a water bath and heated for two minutes. The colour change was observed.

Barfoed test

5ml of Barfoed reagent was added with 1 ml of carbohydrate solutions. Test tubes were placed in water bath and heated for five minutes. The colour change was observed.

Seliwanoff test

1ml of each carbohydrate solution was added to the test tubes following with 4ml of Seliwanoff reagent. The test tubes were placed in the water bath and heated to two to three minutes. The colour change was observed.

Two unknown samples were taken in a test tubes and labeled A and B. Sample A was added to two test tubes. To the sample A the Iodine reagent was added and the colour change was observed. The Benedict’s reagent was added to the sample A of another test tube and was heated in general flame for two minutes and the colour change was observed.

The sample B was added to four test tubes. One drop of Iodine reagent was added to the sample B test tube and colour change was observed following with Benedict’s reagent, Barfoed reagent and the Seliwanoff reagent were added to the remaining test tubes with sample B and was heated in the water bath for three minutes and the colour change was observed.

TEST FOR AMINO ACID METHODOLOGY

Ninhydrin test

1ml of Ninhydrin solution was added into 0.5 ml of 0.02 % amino acid solution in four test tubes. The test tubes were placed in water bath and heated for three to four minutes. The colour change was observed.

Xanthoproteic Test

2ml of conc. Nitric acid was added to 2ml of 0.02% amino acid solution in four test tubes. The test tubes were placed in water bath for two minutes and the colour change was observed. Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

Millon’s Test

Four drops of Millon’s reagent was added into 2ml of 0.02% of amino acid solution in four test tubes. The test tubes were placed in water bath for four minutes and the colour change was observed.

Biurete Test

3ml of 10% of sodium hydroxide was added drop wise to 1% of copper sulphate. The colour change was observed.

Two unknown samples were taken in test tubes and labeled C and D. Sample C was added into two test tubes. To the sample C the Biurete reagent was added and the colour change was observed. The Millon’s reagent was added to the sample C of another test tube and was heated in general flame for two minutes and the colour change was observed.

The sample D was also added into two test tubes. Biurete reagent was added to the sample B test tube and colour change was observed. Besides Millon’s reagent were added to the remaining test tube with sample B and was heated in the water bath for three minutes and the colour change was observed.

RESULTS

Test for carbohydrates

Sugar type Test performed Observation Inferences
Starch Molisch’s test Green precipitate at the bottom and thick purple ring formed All are positive hence it’s a carbohydrate solution
Lactose Green precipitate at the bottom and purple ring formed
Fructose Green precipitate at the bottom and purple ring formed
Glucose Green precipitate at the bottom and light purple ring formed
Sucrose Green precipitate at the bottom and purple ring formed
Starch Iodine test Brown to dark blue solution Positive –unbranched polysaccharide
Lactose Remains brown colour, no colour change These three results in negative as there is a possibility of becoming either monosaccharide or disaccharide.
Fructose Remains brown colour, no colour change
Glucose Remains brown colour, no colour change
Sucrose Remains brown colour, no colour change
Starch Benedict’s test Remained blue, no colour change. Negative-non reducing sugar
Lactose Green precipitate turned into reddish orange colour Positive-reducing sugar
Fructose Green precipitate turned into reddish orange colour Positive-reducing sugar
Glucose Green precipitate turned into reddish orange colour Positive-reducing sugar
Sucrose Remained blue, no colour change. Negative- reducing sugar
Starch Barfoed test Remained blue, no colour change Negative-non reducing disaccharide
Lactose Remained blue, no colour change Negative- reducing disaccharide
Fructose Blue colour turned to reddish colour precipitate Positive- reducing monosaccharide
Glucose Blue colour turned to reddish colour precipitate Positive- reducing monosaccharide
Sucrose Remained blue, no colour change Negative-non reducing disaccharide
Starch Seliwanoff test No colour change, remains colourless Negative- not reducing sugar
Lactose No colour change, remains colourless Negative- not reducing sugar
Fructose Reddish colour Positive-ketone
Glucose No colour change, remains colourless Negative -aldose
Sucrose No colour change, remains colourless Negative- not reducing sugar
Unknown solution Iodine test Benedict’s test Barfoed test Seliwanoff test
A No colour change. (monosaccharide or disaccharide) No colour change

(negative-sucrose)

——– ——–
B No colour change. (monosaccharide or disaccharide) Colour change. (Green precipitate). Positive- either glucose, lactose or fructose) Red precipitate

Positive -(glucose or fructose)

Remains colourless. Negative

Test for amino acids

Amino type Test performed Observation Inferences
Arginine Ninhydrin test Violet colour solution Positive-protein, peptide or amino acid.
Tyrosine
Albumin
Glysin
Arginine Biurete test Blue colour precipitate formed Negative- since copper hydroxide formed.
Tyrosine No colour changed Negative – amino acid present
Albumin Violet colour solution Positive- protein or peptide
Glysin No colour changed Negative – amino acid present
Arginine Xanthoproteic test initial

colourless

Final

colourless

Negative –not aromatic amino acid
Tyrosine Turned yellow Remained yellow Positive-aromatic amino acid
Albumin Milky precipitate colourless Negative-not aromatic amino acid
Glysin Colourless Colourless Negative-not aromatic amino acid
Arginine Millon’s test Milky solution Colourless Negative-Absent of phenolic OH
Tyrosine Pink to red precipitate Positive-protein containing phenolic OH
Albumin Light pink precipitate Positive-protein containing tyrosine
Glysin Colourless Negative-absent of phenolic OH
Unknown solution Biurte test Millon’s test
C Purple (violet colour formed)

Positive-protein or peptide

Cloudy solution turns pinkish

Positive-protein contain tyrosine

D Light blue

Negative-amino acid

Colourless

Negative-amino acid without phenolic OH

DISCUSSION

In Molisch’s test all the carbohydrate solution gave a positive result, so as it’s a general test to confirm the molecule is carbohydrate. Iodine test is performed to separate the polysaccharide from monosaccharide and disaccharide as a result in this test only starch gave a positive result since its unbranched molecule. Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay. Glucose has a free aldehyde group and fructose has a free ketone group. Thus they react with Benedict’s reagent and reduce it to form a reddish orange colour, which is a positive indication of Benedict’s reaction .The copper (II) ions in the Benedict’s solution are reduced to Copper (I) ions, which causes the colour change. Complex carbohydrates such as starches do not react positive with the Benedict’s test.

Buiret solution is a blue liquid that changes to purple when proteins are present and to pink in the presence of short chains of polypeptides. The cause of this colour change is because of the copper atom of the Biuret solution reacts with the peptide bonds.

Avoid spilling Ninhydrin solutions on your skin, as the resulting stains are difficult to remove. When handling with Concentrated Sulphuric acid wear safety garments to avoid Sulphuric acid getting on self. Do not over heat the amino solutions in water bath since all the proteins may denature moreover colour change cannot be observed.

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CONCLUSION

The unknown solution A is sucrose and it’s a non reducing sugar since in Iodine and Benedict’s test it showed a negative result where there was no colour change in addition to unknown solution B is glucose which is a reducing sugar because in Iodine and Seliwanoff test it gave a negative result remaining colourless and in Benedict’s and Barfoed test it gave a positive result changing its colour from green precipitate to reddish colour solution concluding solution B is glucose. Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

The unknown solution C is protein since positive result was obtained and the solution turned pink in Biurete and Millon’s reagent along with the solution D is an amino acid because it remained colourless in Millon’s test and turned light blue in Biurete test resulting both in negative.

References

Aspinall, G. (1982). The Polysaccharides. 1st ed. New York: Academic Press. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014).

Churms, S. (1982). Carbohydrates. 1st ed. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014).

Denniston, K., Topping, J. and Caret, R. (2004). General, organic, and biochemistry. 1st ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk(Accessed: 3rd July 2014).

Ferrier, R. (1999). Carbohydrate chemistry. 1st ed. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014).

Györgydeák, Z. and Pelyvás, I. (1998). Monosaccharide sugars. 1st ed. San Diego: Academic Press. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014).

Kimball, L. (2012). Biomolecules. 1st ed. Delhi: Research World. Google books [Online books] Available at: http://books.google.lk (Accessed: 3rd July 2014). Detection Of Biological Molecules Essay.

 

 

 

 

 

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