Probably, applied genetics most impacts on society are as a result of genetic tests. In general, genetic tests seek to detect some feature of a persons genetic constitution. This feature can be a disease causing mutation or a marker DNA sequence used to detect presence of another gene. Obviously these procedures used for testing the status of DNA, RNA or chromosomes are included in genetic tests. What is more it is possible to include some protein based tests and classical medical examinations when they aim to detect inheritance of a trait. Genetic Testing And Its Social Implications Essay.Genetic tests have been divided into four categories in this text, and they will be examined in greater detail later. These categories are:

Prenatal tests that are applied on fetuses during pregnancy.

Neonatal screening just after birth and career screening of marrying couples.

Testing for serious late-onset disease before the symptoms occur.

Testing to assess the probability of developing complex disease.

There are a couple of considerations about genetic tests:2.

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Extremely accurate genetic tests can only be developed by thorough experimentation on human subjects. Although there is generally no physiological risk in experimenting a person, the subjects should be informed that the applied test is not entirely reliable and in experimentation state. Informing subjects of experimentation is an obligation set by the Nuremberg Code. Just after World War II it was discovered that unethical experiments had been performed on humans who were kept in concentration camps of Nazi Germany. This situation was discovered in Nuremberg Trials, and ethical and legal standards for medical experimentation were set then. Research and common medical procedures are distinct concepts. If a genetic tests validity has been proven by extensive research and the test being used as a routine medical procedure to diagnose patients, it is no more considered as experimental and is not covered by the Nuremberg Code. Nevertheless, the patient should be well informed and his consent should be taken even before applying a routine test. The subject of the test should fully understand the nature of the test and the consequences that may arise from it. The subject of the test should be fully aware of the nature of the test and the consequences caused by the test. Therefore, a professional counselor is needed to psychologically counsel and inform the subjects both before and after the test is taken. Sometimes, the person taking the test cannot give an informed consent when it is a small child or mentally retarded person. In this case, it is still required to take consent of the parents or legal guardians. The tests should only be applied for vital medical reasons. For example, it is not very ethical to test a young girl for a sex linked genetic disease. Because it is intensely related with the future life of the girl, her consent should be taken. As a rule of thumb, the physician performing the tests should consider the childrens opinion and give an increasing importance to them with their age.1. First of all, the tests should be reliable. When a positive or a negative result is obtained, we should be confident in that result with a confidence approaching 100%. To achieve such a high accuracy is not as easy as it may at first appear to be. Meiotic recombinations that always occur take place during gamete generation, may separate a disease-associated gene and a marker DNA sequence which is used to detect mutated genes. Genetic Testing And Its Social Implications Essay. False positive or negative results could be obtained. In addition, genetic tests look for the most common mutations that cause the disease. For example, a test would detect CFTR?F508 (Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Receptor) mutation, however it is not possible to detect infinite number of other mutations. Therefore, a genetic test can give such results so that the physician is convinced that his patient is normal while he is affected by an undetectable mutation. New tests are continuously being developed. Doctors and genetic counselors who will use these tests in the future, should be well informed about newly emerging tests.

3. Tests should not be carried out if there is not sufficient reason to do so. The person tested may face extremely unfavorable outcomes and this may cause psychological distress. Deciding to get married, becoming pregnant, taking some medical precautions before the first symptoms come about and taking financial and career decisions are examples of reasons that justify taking of a test.

4. The rights of knowing someones own health status and keeping that information private to oneself should be provided to all members of a society. Only the individual should have full access to information about his own genetic constitution and others should be prevented by legal regulations. As we have said above, the results of genetic tests can sometimes be detrimental to the individual. If a person does not want to know the information, its nobodys business nor right to declare it. This includes even not explaining favorable test results without the individuals request.

5. Influences of genetic tests can sometimes go far beyond the nuclear family. Especially in some illnesses penetrance shows extreme variability. So, strike of the disease may skip generations or at least some individuals. A distant relatives genetic status may as well bother an individual. He cannot take his parents being healthy as an evidence for his being healthy. Parents can be carriers without showing the symptoms. There can be contrasting situations where one wants to know his genetic status and another objects his taking the test refraining from unintentionally learning some unfavorable information.

Prenatal testing is the process of testing the genetic status of an embryo when there is a risk of a serious monogenic disease or when there is a proliferated risk of gross chromosomal disorder such as Downs syndrome. Genetic Testing And Its Social Implications Essay. Prenatal testing should only be done if the parents are determined to terminate the pregnancy in the event of an unfavorable outcome. It is a very beneficial technology as it encourages couples, who had one genetically defective baby and do not want to have another child because of high risk, to attempt pregnancy by assuring them that in an adverse result pregnancy can be terminated. Positive aspects of such tests are easily distinguishable. However, there also are a number of controversial points.

Prenatal tests are not totally free of risk. During prenatal tests, a sample from the embryos cells should be taken out by a procedure known as amniocentesis. It involves insertion of an injection to mothers uterus and sucking some fluid from chorionic villus of the embryo. It can disturb the embryo. Amniocentesis carries a 1% risk of miscarriage. So, prenatal tests should only be applied when the risk of having a defective baby is much higher.

Prenatal tests should only be made with an idea of termination of the pregnancy in mind. Genetic counselors should explain what it means thoroughly to the couple. As it is explained above, prenatal tests carry a considerable risk of miscarriage and it is not sensible to perform them if the couple would carry on with the pregnancy whatever the result is. Nonetheless, parents always keep the right of not terminating even if they will have a defective child. Some ethnic and religious groups may object the application of prenatal tests because of not accepting in principle the procedures like abortion following test. However, abortion is the legal right of pregnant woman in most countries and no one should be let to interfere with usage of this right.

A lot of tests are applied to pregnant women to assure themselves and their embryos health status. It is a possibility that the prospective mother may not understand or confuse the nature of prenatal test. She may take a test without a view of termination. And she may become faced to carry out pregnancy in the knowledge that her child will be born defective i.e. with Downs syndrome. Of course, prenatal tests should be routinely carried out when necessity arises, but the time should be taken to explain the nature of the test to the prospective mother.

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