Human Organ Transplantation Essay Paper

Please rewrite the definition argument essay titled \”c\” . Please use the previously written attached essay. Please follow the instruction for the Definition Essay Assignment. It needs to be 1500 – 1750 word essay. Please title the essay \”Ethical Concerns In Human Organ Transplantation\”.Please use this essay, same information to write the new essay, just make sure it is an argument essay. Make sure to use at least 10 resources. I will also provide the \”Rewrite as argument essay\” . use these two essays to write the new essay. Make sure it is an argument definition essay.
thank you.

Case against trade and sale of human organs

Human organ transplantation is perhaps one of the most important ‘miracles’ of modern medicine in the 20th century. In 1954, the seemingly impossible dream of replacing a dying or dead organ with a healthy organ from a donor became a reality. On 23rd December, 1954, Drs. John Merrill and Joseph Murray become pioneers in organ transplant medicine by successfully transplanting a kidney at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital. The transplant recipient and donor were monozygotic twins, and this genetic similarity was considered a factor in the operation’s success that allowed the recipient to live for eight more years (Abdeldayem, El-Kased & El-Shaarawy, 2016). After many years of experiments, this duo of doctors conducted the first successful organ transplant operation, a truly miraculous event. It marked the advent of the transplantation era that has since been hailed as an extraordinary leap in medical science. Although it presented a momentous leap in medical science, transplant science presents concerns with regards to the ethical problem of organ sale and trade (Peterchik, 2006). Thus, transplant organ sales and trades offer an opportunity for addressing the existing shortages but present ethical concerns that veto its use.

Organ transplantation is a lifesaving medical activity. But the reality is that a shortage of organs exists. For instance, the organ transplant waitlist in the USA has more than 150,000 persons of which less than 10% of them end up receiving the required organs. The implication is that more than 90% of the persons on the transplant list run the risk of dying because of a shortage of organs. The existing acute need for organs has led to debate on whether organ sale and trade can be an acceptable solution for the existing shortage. In fact, some bioethicists, lawyers and physicians have proposed policy changes to allow for organ trades in regulated markets. Undoubtedly, persons in the transplant wait list would be all too happy to pay for the lifesaving organs. Besides that, the argument is advanced that there are persons who would be all too happy to sell their healthy organs, than to donate them, assuming that they are offered an acceptable price. Surely, like any other ‘precious commodity’, a regulated market can help with identifying and tracking all organ sales to eliminate opportunities for abuse and exploitation (Asano et al., 2014).

Despite these arguments, the sale and trade of organs remains prohibited in the USA, but also internationally. In fact, any such trade is considered a violation of the US laws. The only country that has legally allowed the trade of organs is Iran. Given the proposals legal permissions of trade in transplant organs are the right way to go to address the shortage, the question then becomes if the proponents of a legally approved organ market are ethically right. The answer to this question is dependent on the existing scarcity is perceived (Tsoulfas, 2018).

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While both the proponents and opposition concede that human life should be saved at every available opportunity, the market opponents view organ trade as creating the perception that the donor is for sale. This is in line with Kantian ethics that places an obligation to respect human life irrespective of identity, and that every life has worth beyond price. This philosophical view makes it clear that placing a price on human organs would essentially place a price on life, and this would be indignity. Kant specifically noted that the sale of a tooth to be transplanted into another person’s mouth is wrong regardless of the circumstances since such an action expressed disrespect for the donor’s dignity (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2014).  Human Organ Transplantation Essay Paper

However, it is implausible to maintain that selling an organ implies placing a price on the donor. The reality is that an organ is not a person and using a single organ to extrapolate the price of a human being is illogical. To be more precise, an organ donor can sell an organ and not thereby convey that he/she has a simple price. For instance, if an individual sells his/her organ in order to raise money to treat a sick son or the sale is conducted with the intention of donating the money to a charity organization, then the donor surely wouldn’t thereby be indicating that he/she has a mere price (Huff, Kline & Peterson, 2015).

Besides that, autonomous, voluntary and informed organ sale should be considered right and morally permissible, a questionable absolute position held by proponents of organ trade. The questionable aspect is that despite the trade being between autonomous, voluntary and informed persons, the nature of the trade item does not morally allow the trade to proceed. To put the issue into perspective, let us consider the case of a parent who seeks to sell his/her life in order to get money to save a child’s life. Assuming that the parent is not under any threat to make the sale, is informed of the consequences of the sale, and is mentally competence, then the trade should be considered as ethically right. However, the reality is that such as trade would be considered as slavery and is ethically frowned upon. In Kantian ethics, such as sale expresses disrespect for the parent’s dignity since he or she has a price (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2014).

Another reality that must be acknowledged is that black market trade of organs already exists and it has led to misery for both organ donors and recipients. The implausibility of the previously presented arguments makes it clear that permitting organ trade would require the issue to be approach as a context-dependent and complex subject. Slightly more than 10,000 organs go through the black market every year. The organ donors (sellers) in these markets are typically persons from poor backgrounds who are forced by circumstances to make the sales. They typically undergo serious physical and psychological harm as a result of the trade, concerns that imply causing intentional harm (to the donor) as well another life (the organ recipient) is saved. It is not uncommon for organ donor in black markets to experience isolation, shame, and stigma as well as suffer crying spells, hopelessness and sadness after the sale. In fact, approximately 85% of the sellers report declining health with 80% of them not recommending others in similar circumstances to sell their organs (Beard, Kaserman & Osterkamp, 2013).

The proponents of the establishment of a regulated organ trade insist that regulated markets would protect the organ donors, unlike the unregulated black markets. The protection occurs through incorporating trade provisions targeted at ensuring that both the recipients and sellers are safe. For instance, including provisions that offer postoperative care to the donor and ensuring that screening is conducted prior to the trade (Milstead & Short, 2019).

It is important to note that even with full compliance with regulated market rules still do not address the ethical concerns associated with the acceptability of such trades. The reality is that the existence of such markets help in ensuring adequate supply of transplant organs, but could potentially harm vulnerable populations, such as poor persons and children as well as mentally incompetent persons. For instance, unconcerned parents could force their children to sell their organs in order to improve the family’s financial situation (Adair & Wigmore, 2011). It is naïve to make the assumption that putting structures in place for a regulated market would actually result in a regulated market. If these trades are permitted and regulated in countries with effective regulatory structures and negligible corruption levels, then other countries that already have illicit trade and black markets in place would similarly follow suit. These countries with ineffective regulatory infrastructure and high levels of corruption would continue the illicit trade and black market activities at a much higher level. It is not unreasonable to worry that transplant organ trade would result in harms that affect persons in both the regulated and unregulated markets (Foran, 2013).

Whether to support or reject the regulated trade of transplant organs turns out to be an issue that not only concerns the ethical implications, but also whether this would actually increase the supply of organs. There is a possibility, however remote, that offering financial incentives for organ donations would not have an effect on the supply. Currently, organ donations are supported by altruistic motives whereby the donor makes the decision to offer an organ without expecting any tangible benefits. Most of the donors understand that an acute shortage of transplant organs exists with many people dying. Through donating organs, the donors expect to save a life even as they live by their principles such as those presented in religion. By allowing market exchange for transplant organs, there is a possibility that altruistic donations could be ‘crowded out’ by the perception that an acute shortage does not exist so that altruistic donors are no longer motivated to freely offer their organs. Persons who would otherwise donate an organ for altruistic purposes could refrain from making the donation if doing so has connotations of financial interest and not moral virtue as they intended (Beard, Kaserman & Osterkamp, 2013).

One must accept that transplant organs offer an opportunity for improving the life and health of recipients. In addition, one must acknowledge that an acute shortage of organs exists. Also, regulated trade of organs could help in increasing the number of transplant organs available for use, although it is unclear how much the regulated markets could increase the supply. In any case, such regulated markets prompt ethical concerns, especially concerning their effects on vulnerable populations such as the poor and children. The reality is that the end does not justify the means, and allowing for regulated organ trades would be the wrong means even if it results in a good end through increasing the supply of organs and saving more recipients. Under the present conditions that exist in our societies, organ trade would be unethical, and do not warrant support. In this respect, transplant organ trades offer an opportunity for addressing the existing shortages but presents ethical concerns that veto its use.

References

Abdeldayem, H., El-Kased, A. & El-Shaarawy, A. (ed) (2016). Frontiers in transplantology. Rijeka: InTech Publishers.

Adair, A., & Wigmore, S. J. (2011). Paid organ donation: the case against. Annals of The Royal College of Surgeons of England, 93(3), 191-192. DOI: 10.1308/147870811X565061a

Asano, T., Fukushima, N., Kenmochi, T. & Matsuno, N. (eds) (2014). Marginal donors: current and future trends. Tokyo: Springer.

Beard, R., Kaserman, D. & Osterkamp, R. (2013). The global organ shortage: economic causes, human consequences, policy responses. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Foran, R. (2013). Organ transplants. Minneapolis, MN: ABDO Publishing Company.

Huff, R., Kline, M. & Peterson, D. (2015). Health promotion in multicultural populations: a handbook for practitioners and students (3^rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.

Milstead, J. A. & Short, N. M. (2019). Health policy and politics: a nurse’s guide (6^th ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Petechuk, D. (2006). Organ transplantation. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Stanhope, M. & Lancaster, J. (2014). Public health nursing: population-centered health care in the community (8^th ed.). Maryland Heights, MO: Elsevier/Mosby.

Tsoulfas, G. (ed) (2018). Organ donation and transplantation: current status and future challenges. London: IntechOpen.  Human Organ Transplantation Essay Paper