Prenatal Development Essay

Methods of Childbirth ; Natural of Prepared Childbirth – Blood flow to the uterus is – Designed to reduce pain and medical intervention ; Caesarian Delivery ; Delivery with Medication – Analgesia: used to relieve pain – Anesthesia: block sensation in an area or block consciousness – Systolic: stimulates contractions Assessing the Newborn ; Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale – Performed 24 to 36 hours after birth – Assesses neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people ; PAGE scale – Evaluates infant’s hear rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, reflex irritability

Reflexes ; Neonatal reflexes or primitive reflexes are the inborn behavioral patterns that develop during uterine life. ; Essential for a newborn’s survival immediately after birth. Retirees are not learn De; they are involuntary and necessary tort survival. Eye blink reflex Rooting reflex Sucking reflex Swimming reflex Moor reflex Palmary grasp Tonic neck reflex Stepping reflex Banking reflex The Importance of Prenatal Care ; Why do you think prenatal care is important? ; What are the different ways/means of caring for the pregnant woman and the child in her womb? Prenatal Development Essay.

Developmental psychologists consider the process of human development as it relates to physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development. This lifespan development is organized into different stages based on age. Prenatal development is the process that occurs during the 40 weeks prior to the birth of a child, and is heavily influenced by genetics.

There are three stages of prenatal development—germinal, embryonic, and fetal. Prenatal development is also organized into trimesters: the first trimester ends with the end of the embryonic stage, the second trimester ends at week 20, and the third trimester ends at birth.

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Overview of Genetic Inheritance

Chromosomes

Every person is made up of cells, each of which contains chromosomes. Chromosomes are genetic material that determines many things about a person, such as eye and hair color, biological sex, and personality traits. DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is responsible for the transmission of genetic material. A mother and father’s DNA are passed on at the moment of conception.

A human being has a total of 23 pairs of chromosomes. The developing zygote gets half of its chromosomes from one parent and half from the other parent. The first 22 pairs of chromosomes are known as autosomes and determine things such as eye and hair color. The last pair, known as the sex chromosomes, determine a person’s biological sex: females have two X chromosomes, while males have an X and a Y chromosome.

Gene Expression and Regulation

Gene expression is carefully regulated in every organism to allow the organism to adapt to differing conditions. The expression of genetic information in a given cell or organism is neither random nor fully pre-programmed. Prenatal Development Essay. Genes can either be dominant or recessive, meaning they can either be expressed or hidden. Depending on the dominance of each chromosome that is inherited from each parent, the child may or may not show the inherited trait.

Gene regulation is the process by which cells differentiate. Among other things, it is the process in which a cell determines which genes it will express and when. Cell differentiation is a process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell. For example, as a zygote develops, gene regulation changes some cells into brain cells and others into liver cells. Other cells will become the lining of the stomach, the intestines, and the sexual reproductive organs.

Mutation is when a sudden change in a segment of the DNA occurs. Some mutations of the genes can result in conditions such as Down Syndrome or Turner’s Syndrome.

The Importance of Genetics in Human Development

Differences in gene expression—whether as a result of standard regulation processes or through mutation—are crucial to an individual’s physical and psychological development. The exact extent to which genes, as opposed to an individual’s environment, determine or influence psychological development is hotly debated; this controversy is known as the “nature-vs.-nurture debate.” However, an individual’s genetic makeup at the very least serves as a crucial baseline (which may then be mediated by the environment) for such characteristics as the ability to begin learning spoken language, such personality traits as a tendency toward aggressive versus submissive behavior, and risk levels for such diseases as alcoholism and addiction.

Before birth, a fetus has of course had limited opportunity to be shaped by its environment, beyond factors such as the mother’s diet, substance use, and anxiety level. For this reason, genetics play a particularly important role in prenatal development.

Today, it is well documented that there are many factors that could potentially harm or negatively influence the development of an unborn child during the prenatal period (1). These risk factors include a mother’s age and her nutrition during pregnancy; if there was drug, alcohol, or cigarette use or abuse; as well, potential maternal diseases, such as AIDS or rubella, and environmental hazards, including water, food, and air pollution (Kail). These risk factors are often referred to as teratogens, which are defined as any agent that causes there to be a disruption to normal prenatal development (Kail).  Prenatal Development Essay.There is much evidence to suggest that there may be consequences to prenatal development from exposure and overexposure to teratogens (Kail?). Known deleterious effects from teratogens include an infant being born with low birth weight and prematurely; retarded growth and cognitive delay; as well as, impaired motor control, memory and verbal skills (Kail). However, there is little research on the possible adverse effects maternal psychological conditions and stress may have on an unborn child (1). Therefore, this paper will examine the existing research and literature surrounding the topic of maternal stress during pregnancy. **More specifically, this paper will define stress and discuss the human body’s biological reaction to stress, then it will outline the possible impact maternal stress may have on both prenatal and postnatal development, as well it will provide suggestions for reducing stress and promoting healthy prenatal development.

Stress, for the purpose of this paper, will be defined as any challenge, either physical or psychological, that has the ability to threaten the internal homeostasis of an organism (2 little 3). What an individual may experience to be as a stressor may vary (1). A stressor could range from a traumatic life event, such as a death or divorce, to simple daily hassles, such as financial problems and relationship woes (1). Although the amount of stress response differs across individuals, the body’s biological reaction to stress is the same (1). Mulder et al. (2002) describe that when an individual is exposed to a stressor, the individual’s entire stress regulation system is activated; this means that numerous hormones are released into the blood in large amounts, which then reach the developing fetus (1). In one study, observations were taken of fetal behavior using an ultrasound (1). Fetal activity was monitored in two groups of mothers: one low anxiety, one high anxiety (1). It was noted that neonatal activity was much higher for fetuses of high anxiety mothers (1). Therefore, it is evident that maternal stress is linked to increased fetal activity within the womb (*). Because of critical periods that exist during prenatal development, it is essential to examine the impact maternal stress may have on both prenatal and postnatal development. Prenatal Development Essay.

Mulder (2002) et al. note that although previous stress and prenatal research took place using and observing animals, recent evidence from well-conducted studies suggests that a direct relationship exists between maternal stress and certain pregnancy complications. There is evidence to suggest that high stress levels during pregnancy can lead to numerous pregnancy and birth complications such as miscarriage, low birth weight, pre-eclampsia, and preterm delivery (3). In regards to low birth weight, according to (1 little 25), the impact of maternal stress is similar to the magnitude of impact that smoking can have on a developing fetus. **

In addition to labour and birth complications that can arise due to maternal stress during pregnancy, the exposure to maternal stress prenatally may also contribute to lasting impacts on the infant’s health status, immune system, and neurocognitive development (2). As well, infants of women exposed to high levels of stress appear to be at risk for particular neurological and psychiatric disorders, including cerebral palsy and schizophrenia, and mental disorders affecting social, behavioural, and emotional development (4). King and Laplante (kail) performed a longitudinal study examining maternal stress during prenatal development and infant’s later development and ability. The participants were selected based on their location in Quebec, which had been exposed to an ice storm (Kail). The researchers found that the women in the study experienced a number of stressors because of the ice storm, including a loss of electricity, a loss of or damage to shelter, physical injury, and fear and anxiety over the safety of others (Kail). The participants were contacted a total of seven times between June 1998 and the child’s sixth birthday (Kail). Prenatal Development Essay. King and Laplante noted that moderate to high maternal exposure to stress is associated with infant cognitive, language, and play deficits at age two (Kail). It is evidenet that research exists that outlines the potential negative impact that maternal stress can have on an infant during prenatal development.

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In more recent years, efforts have been made to help reduce the amount of stress that a pregnant woman may have to cope with (1). The rationale behind reducing maternal stress is that “healthy mothers are more likely to have healthy pregnancies and deliver healthy babies” (McCain and Mustard, 1999). According to McCain, Mustard, and Shanker (2007) all levels of the Canadian government are beginning to invest in a variety of services, campaigns, and programs to help promote and assist women is having a healthy pregnancy, birth, and later child development. Some specific efforts to help reduce a pregnant woman’s stress include telephone calls or visits from a social worker, providing information regarding healthy pregnancy, and help to optimize support from other social environments (1). Moreover, Ruiz and Avant (2005) acknowledge the need for medical professionals to be aware of the potential adverse affects maternal stress can have on a growing child. For example, nurses should prescreen pregnant patients for excessive levels of stress (2). Although there are few reliable measures for determining prenatal stress, nurses are encouraged to ask questions and establish a good rapport with the patient in order to assess stress levels (2). Prenatal Development Essay.

Although little research exists on the topic of prenatal stress and later birth and infant development complications, there is enough evidence to suggest a link between maternal stress and prenatal development (2). Stress during pregnancy as a teratogen is a subject that is recently gaining more attention (2). Research exists that has noted the potential for birth and labour complications arising from maternal stress as well as the possibility of language, cognitive, and behavioural deficits in later years (1). More recently, research has shifted to focus on efforts to reduce or minimize stressors for women during pregnancy (2). **Researchers are advocating for the need for further research to be completed so that evidence based interventions for stress can be developed (2). Overall, research suggests that maternal stress does have an impact on the developing fetus and development in later years. Prenatal Development Essay.