The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

International Political Economy
IPE (International Political Economy) is the field of study related to political science which attempts to analyze the economies as well as international relationships held within nations (International Political Economy, 2015). Furthermore, it is also called by the name of global political economy (GPE). This essay is based upon the case scenario in which America hegemonic leadership is questioned because of the rise of the world’s largest economy like China. In this context, the essay will showcase the concept such as hegemony. In addition to this, it will also depict about varied sources due to which hegemonic position is being held by America in the world economy. Furthermore, the essay will also provide answers to the question that whether China can be considered as the realistic alternative to the United States in terms of a global hegemony leader or not.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

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Meaning of the word hegemony
Hegemony can be described as dominant position, hold by one state or social group over others. The word such as hegemony has come from the Greek word such as hegemony which means leader. For example, a nation that is wealthy and possess all types of resources can establish a hegemony position another nation who is found as lack in all the given aspects. In addition to this, the word such as hegemony is also being used for the group or nation that resides in the position of leader (Oatley, 2012). Furthermore, hegemony can be considered as the synonym of high authority. This is because, a nation that hold the given type of position will get the authority with regard to make the decision about all other nations that do not possess the given position. Moreover, this type of nation decides and guides the direction of other countries which needs to be abiding by them whether they like it or not.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

This concept is not only used for nations, but it has its applications in the social life of humans also. For example, kids who are more popular in school will tend to grasp dominant position over other students. As a result of it, these students will set the criteria for the things which can be considered as cool or not regarded as cool. It takes many efforts with regard to get such type of position in the economy (Collinson, 2011). In this context, it has been identified that at present America’s has a hegemony position in the world economy. It is because of the presence of given position only, nation creates influences upon the other countries.

Sources of hegemonic power held by America and how they are resilient
Varied sources identified due to which hegemonic power is held by Americans in the world economy. In this context, it has been identified that economic, military and cultural aspects of America assist it in terms of holding the dominant position in global economies over the countries. In terms of the economic aspect, United State can be considered as the wealthy economy. This is because; it accounts for around 25% of the global economic output in spite of the presence of the fact that it possessing only 4% of the world population (The dominance of America market, 2015). It is because of the presence of the combined effects of given percentage only, United States can be considered as one of the richest counties in the world. Furthermore, in terms of population, it is the largest nation. Given all these factors has played a very effective role in terms of putting the US market in the hegemony position (Woods, 2001).The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

US being the largest import destination can be regarded as another source of hegemonic power held by Americans. As per the report published by the WTO in the year 2012, it is assessed that US imports totaled $2.3 trillion which is the 12.7 % of the world share. Furthermore, the GDP condition of a nation also depicts about the hegemony position. In accordance with the given context, in terms GDP, US is being counted among the world 7th largest economy. Having the type of position in the market will be enough to develop hegemony over another nation.

In addition to this, the language spoken by the world citizens can be considered as a type of culture aspect that enables America with regard to held a dominant position in the economy. In this context, the analysis as being carried out by the linguists have identified that there are around half billion people around the world that speak English as their first or secondary language. Furthermore, it has also been identified that in present scenario English is being regarded as one of the most famous trade language that many nations are using. This shows that culture followed by America is widely accepted by the citizens of many countries. Other nations are performing this, with an aim to build effective relationships with the America that has hegemony in the global market (Guzzini, 2013).The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

Moreover, America holds hegemony position in the world economy because of it’s militarily resources that are huge in number as compared to another nation. America has all types of high tech arms and ammunition that are built through modern and latest technology. In this respect, it is assessed that there are around 8400 attack helicopters available in a world in which US has 6400 of them. In addition to this, America has M1 Abram tank which is more affecting than China Type 99 tank (How much stronger is the US military compared with the next strongest power?, 2015). Moreover, America is being regarded as world largest producer of nuclear power. It accounts for more than 30% of the worldwide nuclear generation of electricity. Overall, it can be said that these are being regarded as the major sources that are helping a nation like US with regard to create and maintain its hegemony position in the world market in an effective way. Given all these sources are resilient because it is with the help of given resources only country is being able to direct its efforts in terms of carrying out the further developments within nation in an effective manner (Cotula, 2012). In addition to this, the given sources are contributing nation with regard to maintain its dominant position in the market even in the global recession type of condition. Thus, it can be stated that the sources identified are flexible in nature as it is assisting America in a positive manner The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

What is Political Science all About? And why getting political science help is academically important?

Writings in Political Science is a peculiar one. This is due to the peculiar nature of the course. In fact, the peculiarity of Political Science often leaves people confused as to how to categorize the discipline. This is why some people often ask questions like “is Political Science a science?” Others are also often confounded to see elements of the Arts in it. This also makes them ask questions like “is Political Science a science or an art?”

The peculiarity of Political Science is partly because the discipline tries to study one of the most powerful influencing phenomena on man today. All over the world and everywhere that there are people, governance and government is a paramount factor that everybody tries to appraise themselves with. A very good example is the current United States of America’s presidential impeachment saga.

In this an intro to Political Science article however, we shall do justice to whatever doubts or confusion you have regarding whether “Political Science” is a Science or an Art”. Before we do that however, there is a need to understand what Political Science really means.

Political Science Help
Political Science Help

What is Political Science?The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

Political Science, also sometimes called “Politicology” has as many definitions as there are scholars studying it. There are several Political Science definitions by different authors. Because Political Science is a discipline that utilizes different approaches, so also there are different definitions to suit the approach of each scholar. Let’s examine some of these definitions then:

Some scholars define Political Science as a discipline which “explores relationships among and within governments, societies and individuals both domestically and internationally”. This definition stresses the fact that politics is not just limited to just governments and societies alone (what you might call macro-politics), but that it also involves individuals (what you might call micro-politics).

Some other scholars define it as “a social study concerning the allocation and transfer of power in decision making, the roles and systems of governance including governments and international organizations, political behavior, and public policies”. This definition cites exactly what politics does – it allocates and transfers the power of decision making. It also expands the agents of politics from governments, societies, individuals to international organizations.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

Is Political Science a Science or an Art?

One of the constantly recurrent Political Science questions is whether Political Science is actually a science and not an art? Some says it is a science, others say it is an art, some others argue that it is a bit of both. This leads us to the question; what category can we actually pinpoint Political Science as belonging to?

Specifically, Political Science is a “Social Science”. Social science are sciences that study humans and their society. They often take into cognizance human relationship and interaction whether as individuals or as a wholesome society. In this regard, Political Science is a social science that examines human relationship and interaction, with particular interest in how they organize their governance and power-sharing. It is a systematic, scientific study of humans in their society.

While Political Science is actually not an “Art” in the strict sense, it can however be seen as one in a loose sense. What exactly do we mean? Have you ever listened to a true politician be it face-to-face, via the radio, television, newspaper, online broadcast or through whichever other means? One thing is common – all true politicians have a mastery of language. They are experts in using flowery language that achieves the aim of persuading people even if all what they are feeding to the people are lies. Persuading another person to believe and buy your lie is simply an “art”! Science does not and cannot do that.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

Importance of Political Science

The importance of Political Science can never be over emphasized. This is because Political Science is one of the most powerful forces operating on people, communities and corporations today. A country is made or marred through political power-play. By extension, individuals within a society can suffer greatly due to decisions and policies that politicians engage in. A very good example is the World War I and World War II.

The first and second world wars are costly Political Science lessons. Certain political decisions were taken that either directly or indirectly caused and fueled the war, hence, causing the death of millions of the people. What can be more important than that which has the power of life and death inherent in it? This is the reason we now have public health and Political Science which is a branch of Political Science which attempts to study how political decisions and policies contribute either positively of negatively to the health of citizens.

History of Political Science

What we have today as “Political Science” was once an inseparable part of a discipline known as “Political Philosophy”. The modern field of Political Science, as a part of political philosophy which depended on other disciplines like Political Economy, Psychology, Sociology, Moral Philosophy, Political Theology and History itself. Aristotle is a popular figure considered by many as the father of Political Science.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

The antecedents of “Political Science” can be traced as far back as to the Socratic political philosophers, such as Aristotle (384–322 BC). Aristotle was one of the first earliest scholars of Political Science to give a working definition of Political Science. He believed that it was a powerful branch of social science which holds special authority and control over other branches, such as military science.

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Types of Writing and Sub-Fields in Political Science

There are various writings in Political Science which often necessitates students of tertiary institutions to constantly keep searching for Political Science writing help. There are various branches or sub-fields of Political Science. Hence, it is not surprising to hear students of Political Science asking questions such as “what are the 4 fields of Political Science?” They are as follows:

Comparative Politics:
This is a broad field of Political Science that engages in its study through the use of comparison. It is a systematic, scientific social science of comparison and then teaching of two or more different types legislature, political actors, constitutions and all elements of governance in general. The essence is often to be able to understand how every society with different political system work.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

Political Theory:
Political theory is the theoretical framework which serves as the foundation of political communities, societies and political institutions. It often focuses on the moral implications of human political association and the human nature of such association. It mainly concerns itself with the contributions of classical and contemporary philosophers.

International Relations:
International relations is that branch of Political Science which studies the relationships between states, nation-states, intergovernmental agencies, multinational corporations, etc. It often thematizes on issues like what causes war between countries? How can these wars be stopped, averted or prevented altogether?

American Politics:
American Politics is one of the sub-fields of Political Science. It aims to develop an understanding of how politics is practiced in the United States of America by engaging in the study of Congress, interest groups, ethnicity, policy formation, bureaucracy, race, public opinion and public participation in the voting process. It employs the historical and behavioral perspective in its study.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

Political Economy:
This is yet another sub-field of Political Science that intends to study how politics affect a country’s economy and how a country’s economy likewise, affect how politics is carried out in a country.

What Do You Do When You Need a Political Science Writing Help?

Each of these various branches of Political Science becomes a research puzzle Political Science in which you as a student, may be required to write assignments, essays, dissertations, etc. on any of these fields. The best option often time is to buy a Political Science research paper PDF. This is because students often face several challenges in writing political science papers.

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This paper aims to discuss and analyse the effects of trade openness (globalization, free trade and international trade organizations) on the political power of individual states by comparing the global globalization phenomena with Stephen Krasner’s realist view of the loss of state political power following trade openness. Has the opening up of borders to international trade, in the form of free trade and globalization, really resulted in a loss of political or economic power by developing countries, and a resulting social instability? Has it also resulted in a win-win situation for hegemonic countries such as the United States?The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

This paper aims to answer these questions by drawing up on the political realist views of Stephen Krasner (1976), political liberalism and comparing them to the increasing pace of globalization that has occurred following the establishment of the World Trade Organization.

2. International political economy
Trade openness and its impact on state political power is studied under the umbrella of International Political Economy (IPE). Prior to modern research on globalization, economics and politics had been treated as different topics, with a different view on international relationships and globalization (Cohen, 2008), However an increasing emphasis on global outlook and increasing interrelatedness of political and economic occurrences, such as the establishment of OPEC and the Saudi Arabia oil crisis decades ago, has prompted a merger of both studies with the aim of studying how they affect each other.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

IPE is the study of the interrelatedness of international politics and global economy. It is a widely accepted view that political reforms and actions are enacted in a bid to attain state economic benefits, while economical situations within a country or region also greatly contribute to the resultant political climate (Hoekman and Kostecki, 1995). IPE is multidisciplinary and could be studied based on different contexts such as a regional or country specific focus; a global issue such as North – South relations. It could also be studied in the context of particular economic sectors, issues or social groups (Underhil, 2000). IPE therefore is very diverse. However as outlined by Underhill (2000), there are 3 basic fundamental principles that categorise any IPE study, and these are:

Political and economic factors are jointly studied and cannot be separated.
Political interaction is one of the major means through which economic structures are established and transformed in the market.
There is a genuine connection between domestic and international level political and economic analysis and the two cannot be separated.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay
Cohen (2008) further asserts that IPE aims to promote the ideology of connecting economics and politics beyond the confines of a single state, into a broader global view. It aims to study how a nation’s foreign policy are determined by the global environment, and how changes to international trade policies, could be enacted due to actions within a specific region (Frieden and Lake, 2000).

The discussion of the factors affecting IPE are therefore crucial in this paper, as it helps the writer and prospective readers to understand the context within which globalization studies have taken place, and the underlying principles that promote political economists’ view of an interrelatedness between trade openness and balance of power.

3. International Trade
a. WTO
The World Trade Organization, established in 1995, is the main international body promoting free trade globally. Its main objectives are to oversee international trade rules, organize trade negotiations, enforce free trade agreements, and settle trade disagreements between member countries (Gallagher, 2005).The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

Prior to its establishment in 1995, its predecessor was the GATT (General Agreements on Trades and Tariffs), which was established in 1948 with 23 member countries. The main aim of the GATT was to regulate trade tariffs on exported goods within member states. Following the Uruguay negotiation rounds that lasted from 1986 – 1993, the WTO was established as a supranational organization whose main aim is to liberalize global trade.

In contrast to the predominant GATT system that only included tariffs for exported goods, the WTO contains 143 member countries and promotes trade negotiations and dispute resolve in not just exported goods, but also services and intellectual property.

WTO has chaired over 400 trade disputes between member states from its commencement (WTO, 2009) and these disputes, mostly filed by an affected country, has resulted in a ruling which affects the economic policies currently in place in some countries. Therefore illustrating the strength of the global organization against individual economic policies if they go against international trade.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

b. Recent developments in world trade
Since its inception in 1995, the WTO has aggressively pursued the following rules amongst its member states (Gallagher, 2005):

Binding and enforceable commitments
Safety values
Reciprocity
Non-discrimination
Transparency
Due to its global acceptance, and the membership of new states like China in 2001, world trade – as a result of these agreements and rules – has increased significantly since the WTO inception (Bagwell and Staiger, 2002).

Merchandise exports rose by 9% in 2004, while trade in commercial services grew by 18%. China has also emerged as a major import and export market, and its share of international trade has continued to rise steadily since joining the WTO in 2001. Share of Chinese exports and imports in many member countries also doubled considerably between 2000 and 2004 (WTO, 2005). The increasing proliferation of Chinese products and its emergence as a global leader in merchandise export would not have been made possible without the WTO.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

China, India and Russia have also opened up their borders to international trade as a result of membership requirements in the WTO, therefore presenting an opportunity for developed countries such as the UK and US to outsource business processes into these countries, and also export business services (Kegley, 2000). The potential for world trade to continuously increase in coming years is therefore great, owing to an increasing acceptance of free trade by previously communist-laden economies.

4. Traditional Views of IPE
a. Stephen’s Krasner’s realist view
According to Stephen Krasner (1976), any state pursuing a trade openness agenda, usually does so with one of the following state interests in mind:

Political power
Aggregate national income
Economic growth
Social stability
He further asserts that empirical neoclassical evidence suggests that the greater the degree of trade openness that any state has to the international trading system, the greater the level of aggregate economic income. Economic growths are also more pronounced in smaller states. Though trade may give the smaller state more welfare benefits, they however do not enjoy the same economies of scale, as do the large developed states.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

However, trade openness does lead to deleterious effects in terms of social stability and political power. Opening up of borders to international trade results may result in an increase of workload for the local working population. Developing countries that have a relatively small working population would be at a huge disadvantage, when compared to larger states that are able to alleviate any deleterious effects due to its large size and greater economic development. The difference in sizes between member states and variations in economic development also increases the potential for the emergence and dominance of hegemonic states. The large state can threaten to alter the trade system in order to secure economic or noneconomic agendas.

These assumptions therefore lead to Krasner’s conclusions that globalization, especially when both developed and developing countries are joined together in mutual agreements, is usually for the benefit of the small number of large developed countries, who are able to gain economic and political benefits by requesting favourable trade deals. He further asserts that it is the power and policies of member states that create order in times of chaos, and by leaving transitional corporations to act on their own accord, could only lead to unfair competition and uneven distribution of wealth.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

Stephen Krasner therefore promotes political realism, and calls for a limitation of global trade, as governments opting for social stability and political growth should avoid entering trade agreements with developing countries that pose a significant threat to their development. The political realist’s view also supports the notion that the state should be totally responsible for dictating economic and political policies within a country, rather than having it decided by supranational entities (Robinson, 2001).The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

b. Liberalist view of transnational trade
Liberalism is the political view that supports the absence of state political influence, and increasing economic freedom – as it is known to correlate strongly with higher standards of living, social stability and peace (Moravcsik, 1997). Katzenstein and Koehane (1999) states that the main aim of political economic liberalism is to promote trade openness, free trade and limit government regulations in both domestic and international trade, as opposed to the realist view expressed earlier, which supports state control and protectionism. Drabek and Laird (1997) also states that liberalism aims to promote the free exchange of intellectual property, goods and services between international countries, without the disadvantages of tariff embargoes and import bans.

Liberalism therefore focuses on the preferences of each state, rather than their military or economic capabilities. Instead of just promoting international trade with no state regulation, liberals largely support the establishment of supranational bodies, such as the European Union, and also global trade organizations (WTO) and custom unions between neighbouring countries (NAFTA, ASEAN). The emergence of these unions and trade bodies aim to promote liberalism by supporting trade negotiations, reducing tariff and promoting free trade globally (Gallagher, 2005). Bagwell and Staiger (2002) states that given the right factors, these supranational establishments provide the right framework for global cooperation and interaction.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

The emergence and dominance of such associations and unions in recent times largely emphasizes the role of liberalism in international political economics.

Therefore, judging by the major research question in this paper, has the emergence of liberalism through free trade organizations and economic unions, confirmed Krasner’s view on trade openness and shift in the balance of power?

5. Discussion
Based on existing literature and empirical evidence, it can be assumed that the WTO is the new proposed supranational body that governs the process of trade between its 143 member states. This significantly reduces the single power of each member state, and encourages mutual agreements and negotiations based on the objective of promoting free trade. It is indisputable that WTO has greatly promoted world trade since its inception, and that it has also given a number of developing countries such as China and India, the opportunity to join the global economy with the aim of promoting economic growth and aggregate national income.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

a. Political Power
The increasing power and global acceptance of the WTO has significantly reduced the state political power of each member states, and its ability to impose tariffs and discriminate against imported goods. Thereby promoting international trade beyond levels witnessed prior to its establishment.

In the advent that any participating member intends to impose a protectionist embargo on its domestic products or services, in a bid to save that industry, a member country of the WTO could file a dispute opposing those roles (WTO, 2009). Member countries that aim to adopt a realist approach in protecting domestic industries have seen their powers greatly reduced by the liberalism that constitutes globalization and free trade. This curb in state power has predominantly been seen as a major consequence of globalization. The ability to control the economies of the state, once an autonomous activity, is now based on the consideration of foreign, as well as local political and economical factors.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

b. Social Stability
Trade openness usually results in an influx of foreign competitors and businesses that need human labour. The opening up of borders to international trade in countries that do not necessarily have the technological know how or human capital education to produce globally competitive products and services could lead to a social instability whereby labour is insufficient or lacks technical understanding. Thus confirming Krasner’s (1979) theory that openness creates more social instability in developing countries, as opposed to developed countries.

China for instance, in the wake of joining WTO has seen a shortfall in agricultural output and a rise in manufacturing output (Bagwell and Staiger, 2002). Local manufactures are unable to compete effectively against foreign companies as Chinese companies lack to relevant technological know how and brand awareness in order to compete effectively in global markets, thereby putting it at a disadvantage. Foreign companies, laden with these resources, could therefore enter into the Chinese or Indonesian or Malaysian economy, with international brands and claim market share away from indigenous companies. The state, unable to exert protectionism or impose tariffs on foreign products is therefore powerless and unable to protect its industries.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

This occurrence is not limited to just South Asia. The emergence of China, as the ideal location to manufacture products cheaper, and also the emergence of India as an emerging technological services economy, has seen these jobs and industries gradually disappearing from developed countries such as the UK, EU and also the US. Manufacturing output in the UK has continuously accounted for a decreasing portion of national GDP since 1960 (ONS, 2009). Though US and EU economies can impose bans and subsidies for their agricultural industry, it may not be so viable in manufacturing. They have therefore had to succumb to international trade agreements and allowed the trade of cheaper Asian products in their economies, at the detriment of the once thriving manufacturing sectors (Krasner, 2009).The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

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However it is not all bad news for large developed countries. The fall in manufacturing output within these regions, has led to a rise in the service sector industry and also a rise in its export. UK services export has grown in recent years to 70% of Nominal GDP (ONS, 2009), and is increasingly becoming predominant especially in regions like India and China. It could therefore be argued that increasing global trade may have led to comparative advantage in these regions, whereby China with a huge number of human capital would be able to effectively attain world dominance in manufacturing output, while the UK and US with their technological supremacy, could maintain their competences in service based industries and intellectual properties.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

On the other hand, it seems like these arguments of social stability and industrial dominance can only be applied to large developed and developing countries. How about those countries in South America or in Africa that have opened up their borders to international trade as a purported means to attain economic growth and aggregate national income? Have they enjoyed the benefits of globalization as the UK, US and China have?

c. Effects of Trade Openness on Developing countries
A state’s decision to open up its borders to free international trade has its advantages and disadvantages. One the plus side, it results in an increasing amount of foreign direct investments (FDI) in particular industries within the developing country (Robinson, 2001). Governments and indigenous corporations value FDIs as they lead to an increased economic growth and aggregate national income within the country. They also positively affect infrastructure development in the forms of schools, hospital and roads. Such global investments also tend to introduce new technologies into the economy that aim to increase productivity and therefore the competitiveness of the companies within the developing country (Bagwell and Staiger, 2002)The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

However, a number of disadvantages also exist, such as promotion of particular industries such as financial services and manufacturing, and the lack of support for non-competitive industries such as Agriculture. This could result in a diversion of budget funds towards the growth of international profitable sectors, while leaving out sectors that are thoroughly essential for social health and standard of living.

Also the increasing competition from market entry of foreign competitors would severely impair the competitive advantage of indigenous firms, if they do not possess the key factors for success that are essential to compete against global companies. A lack of competitive advantage could result in a divergence in population preference from locally produced goods, to international products. Thereby resulting in trade deficit – increasing import relative to export (Krasner, 2009).The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

This occurrence seems to concur with Krasner’s assertion that trade openness furthers the rate of growth of large developed countries with advanced technologies and economies, as they do not necessarily have to protect infant industries from global competition and can also take advantage of the global world market. Though the general effects of free trade and globalization illustrate that developed and developing countries would be exposed to the threat of market entry and international competition, “it is only by maintaining technological lead and continually developing new industries can even a large state escape the undesired consequences of an entirely open economic system” (Krasner, 1976).

This analysis seems contrasting with the predominant liberalist philosophy in that free trade promotes a mutual environment for all companies to trade freely and exchange products and services. What then happens to the developing countries that would be ridden with imported goods and services, but would not necessarily possess the industrial capacity that enables their industrial advancement or technology to compete effectively against international competition? Should they therefore succumb and be left with no indigenous products or services.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

6. Conclusion
Based on the review of existing literatures outlined in this paper and developments that have occurred since the establishment of the WTO, it can be confirmed that trade openness does result in a shift of power towards to few developed countries such as the EU, US, India and China that have the technological, economical or socio-cultural capabilities to compete effectively in the international market. The US may still have global hegemonic powers, due to its relative military and economic size, but its influence over globalization is increasingly being reduced by other countries and unions such as China, India and the EU, which possess valuable resources in manpower, technology and capital.The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay

However, developing countries such as Latin America, other Asian countries and Africa are left at a disadvantage, as they may not necessarily possess the relevant resources necessary to compete in the global economy. They are therefore left at the mercy liberalist transnational companies, trading under the auspice of ‘Free Trade’, who have relieved the state of its control over its political and economic climate, and therefore invaded these developing nations with its goods and services.

Developments in world trade since 1995 therefore confirm Stephen Krasner’s theory that trade openness has resulted in a shift in power from developing countries to developed countries. The International Political Economy of Nursing Essay